机加工外文翻译-工艺规程制订与并行工程【中英文WORD】【中文5160字】

机加工外文翻译-工艺规程制订与并行工程【中英文WORD】【中文5160字】,中英文WORD,中文5160字,加工,外文,翻译,工艺,规程,制订,并行,工程,中英文,WORD,中文,5160 【中文5160字】 工艺规程制订与并行工程 T. Ramayah and Noraini Ismail 摘要 产品设计是用于产品，及它的部件装配的计划。为了把产品设计转换成一个实际物体，这需要一个制造计划。而制订一个这样的计划的行动就叫做工艺规程制订。它是产品设计和制造之间的连接，工艺规程制订包括决定加工顺序和制造产品所必须完成的装配步骤。在以下文章中,我们将解释工艺规程制订和他的一些相关主题文章开始，我们应该区别在下列文章中被反复提到的工艺规程制订和生产计划。工艺规程制订与如何制造产品和它的零件等工程技术问题有关，制造零件和装配产品需要什么样的设备和工具？工艺规程制订与产品制造物流管理有关系。它在工艺规程制订后面与原料分类及获得满足制造充分数量产品要求的资源有关。 工艺规程制订 工艺规程制订包括决定最适当的制造及装配步骤和顺序，在这些顺序和步骤中他们必须根据所提出的详细的设计说明书规范完成给定零件或产品制造。 能够被计划的工艺范围和多样性通常由于公司车间可用设备和技术能力而受到限制。在公司内部不能够制造的零件必须到外部市场购买，工艺规程制订所提及的工艺选择同样也受到详细设计资料的限制，我们稍后将会回到这一点。 工艺规程制订通常是由制造工程师完成的，工艺制订者必须熟悉工厂中详细可用的制造流程并且能够说明工程图。基于制订者的知识、技术和经验，用于制造每个零件的工艺步骤以最合乎逻辑的顺序被发展制订。下列各项是在工艺规程制订范围里的许多决定和详细资料：   .设计图的说明.  在工艺规程制订的开始，产品设计的这一部分( 材料、尺寸、公差、表面处理等等)必须进行分析。   .工艺和顺序.  工艺制订者必须选择哪一个工艺是必需的及必需工艺的序列。此外还必须准备好一个简短的工艺步骤描述。   .设备选择.  大体上，工艺制订者必须逐步展开利用工厂现有机器的计划。另外，组件必须被购买或在新设备上的投资必须被制定。   .工具、冲模、铸模、夹具、量具.  工艺必须决定每个工序需要什么工具，这些工具的实际设计和制造通常通过委派工具设计部门和工具库或者联系专攻那种工具制造的外面厂商来完成。   .方法分析.  车间规划，小工具，提升重物的提升间。甚至在一些人工操作情景中的肢体动作也被指定。   .操作步骤.  工作测量技术被用来为每个操作设定时间标准。   .切削工具和切削条件.  这些必须对加工操作通过推荐标准手册来进行详细说明。 零件工艺规程制订 对于单个零件，加工顺序通过一种被称为进路表的表格来进行文件证明备份。就如工程图被用于详细说明设计产品一样，进路表被用于详细说明工艺计划。他们是类似的，一个用于产品设计，另一个用于制造。 制造单个零件的典型加工顺序包括：(1) 一个基本工序 (2) 二级工序 (3) 提高物质特性工序和(4) 最后工序。一个基本工序决定了工件的起始造型。金属铸件、塑料成型、金属精炼是基本工序中的实例。起始造型常常必须通过改变起始造型操作(或者接近于最终造型)的二级工序来精制。二级工序习惯于和基本工序一起提供起始造型，当砂型铸造是基本工序，车加工通常是二级工序。当轧钢厂制造金属片是基本工序，冲压操作像冲裁和弯曲通常是二级工序。当塑料注入成型是基本工序时，二级工序通常是不必要的，因为他的大多数几何特征制造通过别的方式如成型制造来完成。塑料成型和其他操作的二级工序被称为净成型工序的并发二级工序，需要一些但并不多的二级工序的操作就是所提到的近似成型工序。许多有印象的摸锻件就是这一类，这类零件能够经常在锻造(初级工序)阶段被成型，因此减少了必要的加工(二级工序)。 一旦模型被建立，许多零件的下一步是改良它们的机械物理性能。提高特性工序并不改变零件模型，然而，它却能改变零件的物理特性。金属零件的热处理操作就是最普通的实例。类似的如玻璃通过热处理来制造钢化玻璃，对于大多数零件的制造来说，这些特性加强工序在加工工序中并不需要。 最后工序通常对零件(或装配体)的表面提供一个涂层。例如电镀、薄膜沉积技术、涂漆。表面处理的目的是改善外观，改变颜色或者表面保护防止腐蚀和磨损等等。在很多零件中最后工序是并不需要的。例如：塑料成型就很少需要最后程序。当必须需要最后程序，他通常是加工顺序的最后一步。 装配工艺规程制订 一个既定产品的典型装配方法由以下因素决定的：(1)预期产品数量(2)装配产品的复杂性。例如：不同组件的数量和(3)常用装配工艺。例如：机械定位焊接、对于小数量产品，通常在人工装配线上进行装配。对于大量制造的一打或这样组件的简单零件，要采用适当的自动化装配线。无论如何这里有一个工作必须被完成的优先顺序，这个优先需求经常用一个优先表来进行图表描绘。 装配工艺规程制订包括装配指令的发展，但是更详细地对于小批量生产。在一个岗位完成整个装配，对于一个装配线上的大批量生产，工艺规程制订由一种分配工作条件到装配线个别工位并被叫做人工投入线性平衡法的程序组成。这种装配线按照装配线平衡解决方案决定的顺序发送工作单元到个别工位，在个别组成，任意工具或夹具的工艺规程制订时，一条装配线的决定、设计和制造必须被完成，并且工作站的必须被列出来。 制造或购买决定 在工艺制定过程中出现的一个重大问题是一个特定零件应该在公司内部的工厂内生产还是从外部销售商处购买，并且这个问题的答案被认为是制造或购买决定。如果公司没有技术设备或制造零件所必须的详细制造工艺中的专门技术，那么答案就很明显了。因为没有其他选择零件必须购买。然而，在很多例子中零件既可以在利用现有设备在内部制造或者可以从外部拥有相似制造能力的生产销售商处购买。 在我们的关于制造或购买的决定的讨论中，他应该认识到在开始几乎所有的制造者从供应商那里购买原料。一个机械加工厂从一个金属经销商购买他的起动柄原料或从一个铸造厂购买他的砂型铸件。一个塑料成型厂从一个化工厂购买他的模塑料。一个冲压厂可以去经销商或直接从轧钢厂购买金属片。很少的公司能够在操作中从原料一直进行垂直整合，这看来至少购买一些也许在他的工厂可以另外制造的零件是合理的。也有可能为公司使用的每一个组成要求制造或购买决定。 这里有许多影响制造或购买决定的因素，一个人可能认为成本是决定是购买还是制造零件的最重要的因素。如果一个外部经销商比公司工厂更精通于制造零件的工艺，因而公司内部生产成本可能比经销商赚取成本后的价格还要高。可是，如果购买决定导致公司工厂设备和劳动的闲置，购买零件的表面优势就会丧失。考虑以下例子制造或购买决定。 为一个特定零件被引述的价格是100个单位的每单位$20.00。制造零件的成分如下所示： 单位原料成本=每单位$8.00 直接劳动成本=每单位$6.00 劳动加班150%=每单位$9.00 设备修理成本=每单位$5.00 ___________________ 总计=每单位$28.00 这个组成应该被购买还是在内部制造 ？ 解决方案：尽管经销商的引证似乎支持购买决定，让我们来考虑如果引证被接受可能在生产操作中的冲突。$5.00设备维修成本是已经被制定的投资成本，如果设备设计因为购买零件的决定而变的没有利用价值，那么这个固定成本仍然继续尽管设备闲置着。同样，如果零件被购买由工厂空间，效用和劳动成本组成的$9.00的劳动间接成本仍然继续。通过这种推理，如果应该已用于生产零件的设备闲置的购买决定并不是一个好决定因为他可能花费公司将近$20.00+$5.0+$9.00=$34.0每单元。另一方面，如果正在讨论的设备可以被用于生产其他零件并且内部生产成本低于外部联系报价，那么一个购买决定就是一个好决定。 制造或购买决定并不像这个例子中的那样直接。这几年的一个趋势，尤其在汽车工业，公司和零件供应者建立紧密关系。由此我们将引出并行工程。 在计划操作方面制造公司有很大兴趣利用计算机辅助工艺（CAPP）系统来完成。 那些熟悉加工详细资料和其他工艺的工厂培训的工人逐渐退休，并且这些人在将来工艺制订的过程中是非常有用的。一种可选择的用于完成这种功能的方式是必需的，CAPP 提供了这种选择。CAPP经常被看作是计算机辅助制造（CAM）的一部分。然而这种趋向意味着CAM是一系列系统。事实上，当CAD和计算机辅助设计协同作用创造了一个CAD/CAM系统。在这样一个系统中，CAPP成为设计和制造之间的直接联结。来自计算机辅助工艺的优点包括以下几点： .工艺合理化和标准化.  自动工艺规程制订比完全用手工编制工艺产生的更合理化和一致化。标准设计趋向产生低成本和高生产质量。   .增强工艺制订者的生产力.  在数据文件中的系统方法和标准加工设计的实用性使工艺制订者可完成更多的工作。   .减少工艺规程的制订时间.  与手工准备相比，利用CAPP系统的工艺制订者可以在较短的时间内准备好进路表。   .改良异读性.  计算机准备的进路表比手工准备的进路表更容易简洁。   .结合其他应用软件.  CAPP 系统可以在界面上与其它应用软件结合，象成本估计和工作标准。 计算机辅助工艺围绕着两个路径来设计，这两个路径被叫做：（1）CAPP检索系统和（2）CAPP生成系统。许多CAPP系统结合这两种路径而被称为生成检索CAPP系统。 制造业的并行工程和设计 并行工程引用一种常用于产品发展的路径，通过它使工程设计功能、工程制造功能和其他功能综合起来以减少一种新产品投放市场所需要的共用时间，也被称为并发工程，他可能被认为是CAD/CAM技术的类似组织版本，按照传统路径来使一件产品投放市场。如图(1)a所示，工程设计功能和工程制造功能这两种功能是分开并且连续的，产品设计部门开展一项新的设计有时很少考虑到公司的制造能力，也很少有机会能够让制造工程师来提供如何使设计更容易制造的一些建议。他好像消除了在设计和制造之间的一堵墙，当设计部门完成设计，他投掷工程图和说明书越过这面墙，并且那时工艺规程制订也开始了。 图（1）  比较 : (a) 传统产品发展周期和 (b) 并行产品的发展周期 通过比较，实行并行工程的公司，工程制造部门在早期就参与到产品发展周期。为如何使产品和他的组成能够被设计的更适于制造提供建议。他同样为产品提供制造计划继续进行的早期准备，这种并行工程的路径在图(1)b中被描绘出。除了工程制造以外其他功能同样被包括在产品发展周期中，如质量工程、制造部门、后勤服务、市场供应评定组成和一些情况下将使用这些产品的消费者。在产品发展阶段的所有这些功能不仅能改善新产品的功能和性能，同时也能改善他的可造性、自检性、易测性、服务能力和可维护性。通过早期功能改善，因为在最终产品设计之后的回顾太晚以至于不能对设计进行便利的修改的不利因素的消除，使产品发展周期的持续期大大减少。 并行设计包含以下因素：(1)一些制造和装配设计(2)质量设计(3)成本设计和(4)生命周期设计。另外，像快速成型、虚拟制造、和组织转变等辅助技术需要被用来促进公司的并行工程。 制造和装配设计 据估计一件产品的70%的生命周期成本是由在产品设计时所做的基本决定所决定的，这些设计决定包括每个零件的材料、零件模型、公差、表面处理、零件是如何被组织装配的和常用装配方法。一旦这些决定被指定，减少产品制造成本的能力就会被限制。例如，如果产品设计者决定用铝砂型铸造法制造一个分开零件，但是这个零件的工艺特性只能通过加工来完成(如螺纹孔和配合公差)，制造工程师没有选择的余地，只能按照先砂型铸造在加工的方法来达到既定要求。在这个例子中，用一个在单独步骤所需要的塑料模制品也许是一个较好的决定。因此，当产品设计展开时给制造工程师一个忠告设计者的机会对产品的顺利可造性是非常重要的。 这种被用于尝试描述顺利改变一件新产品的可造性的条件是制造设计(DFM)和装配设计(DFA)。当然，DFM和DFA是紧密相连的，因此让我们用制造和装配设计(DFM/A)的形式来表达。制造和装配设计包括在一件新产品中的可造性和可装配性的综合考虑，这包括： (1)组织变化和(2)设计原理和指导方针。 .在DFM/A中的组织变化.  DFM/A的有效执行包括公司组织机构的正式或非正式的变化，因此设计职工和制造职工之间有很好的交流和交互作用。这可以通过以下方法来完成：(1)通过成立由产品设计者制造工程师和其他员工(例如：质量工程师、材料专家)组成的攻关小组来进行产品开发；(2)通过要求设计工程师用一些事业时间在制造上，以能够掌握第一手可造性和可装配性是如何通过产品设计联系在一起的；(3)通过指派制造工程师到产品设计部门在一个临时的或专任的基础上做一个还原性顾问。 .设计说明和指导方针.  DFM/A为了理解如何设计一个既定产品来使可造性和可装配性最大化也依赖于设计说明和指导方针的使用，这些通用设计指导方针中的一些几乎适用于任何产品设计。在其他方面，一些设计原理只适用于特定工序，例如：轴或锥度在阶梯中的使用和利用模制品来切除模内零件，在制造过程中我们只把这些具体过程指导方针放在书本上。 指导方针有时互相矛盾，一条指导方针是“简化零件模型，避免不必要的特征”。但是在同一表格里的另一指导方针为了装配安全而规定在设计产品时“特殊几何特征必须不时加上他的组成”。而且他也许值得来结合个别装配件的特征来减少产品中零件的数量。在这些示例中零件制造设计与装配设计相冲突，在这个矛盾冲突的两边，一个适当解决方法必须被发现。 Process Planning and Concurrent Engineering T. Ramayah and Noraini Ismail ABSTRACT The product design is the plan for the product and its components and subassemblies. To convert the product design into a physical entity, a manufacturing plan is needed. The activity of developing such a plan is called process planning. It is the link between product design and manufacturing. Process planning involves determining the sequence of processing and assembly steps that must be accomplished to make the product. In the present chapter, we examine processing planning and several related topics. Process Planning Process planning involves determining the most appropriate manufacturing and assembly processes and the sequence in which they should be accomplished to produce a given part or product according to specifications set forth in the product design documentation. The scope and variety of processes that can be planned are generally limited by the available processing equipment and technological capabilities of the company of plant. Parts that cannot be made internally must be purchased from outside vendors. It should be mentioned that the choice of processes is also limited by the details of the product design. This is a point we will return to later. Process planning is usually accomplished by manufacturing engineers. The process planner must be familiar with the particular manufacturing processes available in the factory and be able to interpret engineering drawings. Based on the planner’s knowledge, skill, and experience, the processing steps are developed in the most logical sequence to make each part. Following is a list of the many decisions and details usually include within the scope of process planning.   .Interpretation of design drawings.  The part of product design must be analyzed (materials, dimensions, tolerances, surface finished, etc.) at the start of the process planning procedure.   .Process and sequence.  The process planner must select which processes are required and their sequence. A brief description of processing steps must be prepared.   .Equipment selection.  In general, process planners must develop plans that utilize existing equipment in the plant. Otherwise, the component must be purchased, or an investment must be made in new equipment.   .Tools, dies, molds, fixtures, and gages.  The process must decide what tooling is required for each processing step. The actual design and fabrication of these tools is usually delegated to a tool design department and tool room, or an outside vendor specializing in that type of tool is contacted.   .Methods analysis.  Workplace layout, small tools, hoists for lifting heavy parts, even in some cases hand and body motions must be specified for manual operations. The industrial engineering department is usually responsible for this area.   .Work standards.  Work measurement techniques are used to set time standards for each operation. .Cutting tools and cutting conditions.  These must be specified for machining operations, often with reference to standard handbook recommendations. Process planning for parts For individual parts, the processing sequence is documented on a form called a route sheet. Just as engineering drawings are used to specify the product design, route sheets are used to specify the process plan. They are counterparts, one for product design, the other for manufacturing. A typical processing sequence to fabricate an individual part consists of: (1) a basic process, (2) secondary processes, (3) operations to enhance physical properties, and (4) finishing operations. A basic process determines the starting geometry of the work parts. Metal casting, plastic molding, and rolling of sheet metal are examples of basic processes. The starting geometry must often be refined by secondary processes, operations that transform the starting geometry (or close to final geometry). The secondary geometry processes that might be used are closely correlated to the basic process that provides the starting geometry. When sand casting is the basic processes, machining operations are generally the second processes. When a rolling mill produces sheet metal, stamping operations such as punching and bending are the secondary processes. When plastic injection molding is the basic process, secondary operations are often unnecessary, because most of the geometric features that would otherwise require machining can be created by the molding operation. Plastic molding and other operation that require no subsequent secondary processing are called net shape processes. Operations that require some but not much secondary processing (usually machining) are referred to as near net shape processes. Some impression die forgings are in this category. These parts can often be shaped in the forging operation (basic processes) so that minimal machining (secondary processing) is required. Once the geometry has been established, the next step for some parts is to improve their mechanical and physical properties. Operations to enhance properties do not alter the geometry of the part; instead, they alter physical properties. Heat treating operations on metal parts are the most common examples. Similar heating treatments are performed on glass to produce tempered glass. For most manufactured parts, these property-enhancing operations are not required in the processing sequence. Finally finish operations usually provide a coat on the work parts (or assembly) surface. Examples included electroplating, thin film deposition techniques, and painting. The purpose of the coating is to enhance appearance, change color, or protect the surface from corrosion, abrasion, and so forth. Finishing operations are not required on many parts; for example, plastic molding rarely require finishing. When finishing is required, it is usually the final step in the processing sequence. Processing Planning for Assemblies The type of assembly method used for a given product depends on factors such as: (1) the anticipated production quantities; (2) complexity of the assembled product, for example, the number of distinct components; and (3) assembly processes used, for example, mechanical assembly versus welding. For a product that is to be made in relatively small quantities, assembly is usually performed on manual assembly lines. For simple products of a dozen or so components, to be made in large quantities, automated assembly systems are appropriate. In any case, there is a precedence order in which the work must be accomplished. The precedence requirements are sometimes portrayed graphically on a precedence diagram. Process planning for assembly involves development of assembly instructions, but in more detail .For low production quantities, the entire assembly is completed at a single station. For high production on an assembly line, process planning consists of allocating work elements to the individual stations of the line, a procedure called line balancing. The assembly line routes the work unit to individual stations in the proper order as determined by the line balance solution. As in process planning for individual components, any tools and fixtures required to accomplish an assembly task must be determined, designed, built, and the workstation arrangement must be laid out. Make or Buy Decision An important question that arises in process planning is whether a given part should be produced in the company’s own factory or purchased from an outside vendor, and the answer to this question is known as the make or buy decision. If the company does not possess the technological equipment or expertise in the particular manufacturing processes required to make the part, then the answer is obvious: The part must be purchased because there is no internal alternative. However, in many cases, the part could either be made internally using existing equipment, or it could be purchased externally from a vendor that process similar manufacturing capability. In our discussion of the make or buy decision, it should be recognized at the outset that nearly all manufactures buy their raw materials from supplies. A machine shop purchases its starting bar stock from a metals distributor and its sand castings from a foundry. A plastic molding plant buys its molding compound from a chemical company. A stamping press factory purchases sheet metal either fro a distributor or direct from a rolling mill. Very few companies are vertically integrated in their production operations all the way from raw materials, it seems reasonable to consider purchasing at least some of the parts that would otherwise be produced in its own plant. It is probably appropriate to ask the make or buy question for every component that is used by the company. There are a number of factors that enter into the make or buy decision. One would think that cost is the most important factor in determining whether to produce the part or purchase it. If an outside vendor is more proficient than the company’s own plant in the manufacturing processes used to make the part, then the internal production cost is likely to be greater than the purchase price even after the vendor has included a profit. However, if the decision to purchase results in idle equipment and labor in the company’s own plant, then the apparent advantage of purchasing the part may be lost. Consider the following example make or Buy Decision. The quoted price for a certain part is $20.00 per unit for 100 units. The part can be produced in the company’s own plant for $28.00. The components of making the part are as follows:                     Unit raw material cost = $8.00 per unit                     Direct labor cost =6.00 per unit                     Labor overhead at 150%=9.00 per unit                     Equipment fixed cost =5.00 per unit                   ________________________________                              Total =28.00 per unit Should the component by bought or made in-house ? Solution: Although the vendor’s quote seems to favor a buy decision, let us consider the possible impact on plant operations if the quote is accepted. Equipment fixed cost of $5.00 is an allocated cost based on investment that was already made. If the equipment designed for this job becomes unutilized because of a decision to purchase the part, then the fixed cost continues even if the equipment stands idle. In the same way, the labor overhead cost of $9.00 consists of factory space, utility, and labor costs that remain even if the part is purchased. By this reasoning, a buy decision is not a good decision because it might be cost the company as much as $20.00+$5.0+$9.00=$34.00 per unit if it results in idle time on the machine that would have been used to produce the part. On the other hand, if the equipment in question can be used for the production of other parts for which the in-house costs are less than the corresponding outside quotes, then a buy decision is a good decision. Make or buy decision are not often as straightforward as in this example. A trend in recent years, especially in the automobile industry, is for companies to stress the importance of building close relationships with parts suppliers. We turn to this issue in our later discussion of concurrent engineering. Computer-aided Process Planning There is much interest by manufacturing firms in automating the task of process planning using computer-aided process planning (CAPP) systems. The shop-trained people who are familiar with the details of machining and other processes are gradually retiring, and these people will be available in the future to do process planning. An alternative way of accomplishing this function is needed, and CAPP systems are providing this alternative. CAPP is usually considered to be part of computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). However, this tends to imply that CAM is a stand-along system. In fact, a synergy results when CAM is combined with computer-aided design to create a CAD/CAM system. In such a system, CAPP becomes the direct connection between design and manufacturing. The benefits derived from computer-automated process planning include the following:   .Process rationalization and standardization.  Automated process planning leads to more logical and consistent process plans than when process is done completely manually. Standard plans tend to result in lower manufacturing costs and higher product quality.   .Increased productivity of process planner.  The systematic approach and the availability of standard process plans in the data files permit more work to be accomplished by the process planners.   .Reduced lead time for process planning.  Process planner working with a CAPP system can provide route sheets in a shorter lead time compared to manual preparation.   .Improved legibility.  Computer-prepared rout sheets are neater and easier to read than manually prepared route sheets.   .Incorporation of other application programs.  The CAPP program can be interfaced with other application programs, such as cost estimating and work standards. Computer-aided process planning systems are designed around two approaches. These approaches are called: (1) retrieval CAPP systems and (2) generative CAPP systems .Some CAPP systems combine the two approaches in what is known as semi-generative CAPP. Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturing Concurrent engineering refers to an approach used in product development in which the functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering, and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product to market. Also called simultaneous engineering, it might be thought of as the organizational counterpart to CAD/CAM technology. In the traditional approach to launching a new product, the two functions of design engineering and manufacturing engineering tend to be separated and sequential, as illustrated in Fig.(1).(a).The product design department develops the new design, sometimes without much consideration given to the manufacturing capabilities of the company, There is little opportunity for manufacturing engineers to offer advice on how the design might be alerted to make it more manufacturability. It is as if a wall exits between design and manufacturing. When the design engineering department completes the design, it tosses the drawings and specifications over the wall, and only then does process planning begin. Fig.(1). Comparison: (a) traditional product development cycle and (b) product development using concurrent engineering By contrast, in a company that practices concurrent engineering, the manufacturing engineering department becomes involved in the product development cycle early on, providing advice on how the product and its components can be designed to facilitate manufacture and assembly. It also proceeds with early stages of manufacturing planning for the product. This concurrent engineering approach is pictured in Fig.(1).(b). In addition to manufacturing engineering, other function are also involved in the product development cycle, such as quality engineering, the manufacturing departments, field service, vendors supplying critical components, and in some cases the customer who will use the product. All if these functions can make contributions during product development to improve not only the new product’s function and performance, but also its produceability, inspectability, testability, serviceability, and maintainability. Through early involvement, as opposed to reviewing the final product design after it is too late to conveniently make any changes in the design, the duration of the product development cycle is substantially reduced. Concurrent engineering includes several elements: (1) design for several manufacturing and assembly, (2) design for quality, (3) design for cost, and (4) design for life cycle. In addition, certain enabling technologies such as rapid prototyping, virtual prototyping, and organizational changes are required to facilitate the concurrent engineering approach in a company. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly It has been estimated that about 70% of the life cycle cost of a product is determined by basic decisions made during product design. These design decisions include the material of each part, part geometry, tolerances, surface finish, how parts are organized into subassemblies, and the assembly methods to be used. Once these decisions are made, the ability to reduce the manufacturing cost of the product is limited. For example, if the product designer decides that apart is to be made of an aluminum sand casting but which processes features that can be achieved only by machining(such as threaded holes and close tolerances), the manufacturing engineer has no alternative expect to plan a process sequence that starts with sand casting followed by the sequence of machining operations needed to achieve the specified features .In this example, a better decision might be to use a plastic molded part that can be made in a single step. It is important for the manufacturing engineer to be given the opportunity to advice the design engineer as the product design is evolving, to favorably influence the manufacturability of the product. Term used to describe such attempts to favorably influence the manufacturability of a new product are design for manufacturing (DFM) and design for assembly(DFA). Of course, DFM and DFA are inextricably linked, so let us use the term design for manufacturing and assembly (DFM/A). Design for manufacturing and assembly involves the systematic consideration of manufacturability and assimilability in the development of a new product design. This includes: (1) organizational changes and (2) design principle and guidelines. .Organizational Changes in DFM/A.  Effective implementation of DFM/A involves making changes in a company’s organization structure, either formally or informally, so that closer interaction and better communication occurs between design and manufacturing personnel. This can be accomplished in several ways: (1)by creating project teams consisting of product designers, manufacturing engineers, and other specialties (e.g. quality engineers, material scientists) to develop the new product design; (2) by requiring design engineers to spend some career time in manufacturing to witness first-hand how manufacturability and assembility are impacted by a product’s design; and (3)by assigning manufacturing engineers to the product design department on either a temporary or full-time basis to serve as reducibility consultants. .Design Principles and Guidelines.  DFM/A also relies on the use of design principles and guidelines for how to design a given product to maximize manucturability and assembility. Some of these are universal design guidelines that can be applied to nearly any product design situation. There are design principles that apply to specific processes, and for example, the use of drafts or tapers in casted and molded parts to facilitate removal of the part from the mold. We leave these more process-specific guidelines to texts on manufacturing processes. The guidelines sometimes conflict with one another. One of the guidelines is to “simplify part geometry, avoid unnecessary features”. But another guideline in the same table states that “special geometric features must sometimes be added to components” to design the product for foolproof assembly. And it may also be desirable to combine features of several assembled parts into one component to minimize the number of parts in the product. In these instances, design for part manufacture is in conflict with design for assembly, and a suitable compromise must be found between the opposing sides of the conflict. 工艺规程制订与并行工程 T. Ramayah and Noraini Ismail 摘要 产品设计是用于产品，及它的部件装配的计划。为了把产品设计转换成一个实际物体，这需要一个制造计划。而制订一个这样的计划的行